Animal-Assisted Interventions
The field of Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAI) is quite vast, and includes a number of practices and approaches, such as animal-assisted therapy (AAT), animal-assisted activities (AAA), animal-assisted education (AAE), and therapeutic farms.
For the purposes of this website, this section will focus on the inclusion of any species of animal in a therapeutic intervention, with the exception of horses, which will be discussed in a separate section.
Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT)
According to the Delta Society (2008), one of the key features that distinguishes AAT from the AAAs (see next category) is that "AAT is directed by health/human services professionals as a normal part of their practice. This person may be a physician, occupational therapist, physical therapist, certified therapeutic recreation specialist, teacher, nurse, social worker, speech therapist, mental health professional, etc. The animal may be handled by the professional or by a volunteer under the direction of a professional. To be considered AAT, a professional must use the animal as part of his/her own specialty [i.e., within that individual's "scope of practice"]. For example, a social worker must use the animal in the context of social work. If this same social worker were to visit a group of children on an informal basis, the activity would be considered AAA."
This is an important point to remember, as many people who provide AAAs or who participate in pet visitation programs still refer to their services as AAT or "pet therapy", both of which would be inaccurate, according to the Delta Society and to many key individuals in this field. Kruger and Serpell (2006) offer an elegant summary of this dilemma:
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"In their critical review of the literature on animal-assisted interventions, Beck and Katcher (1984) aptly state that 'a clear distinction should be made between emotional response to animals, that is, their recreational use, and therapy. It should not be concluded that any event that is enjoyed by the patients is a kind of therapy.' Although this statement was made more than 20 years ago, the term animal-assisted therapy continues to be applied to an array of programs that would not qualify as therapy in any scientific/medical sense of the word.
"The Oxford English Dictionary (1997) defines therapy as 'the medical treatment of disease; curative medical or psychiatric treatment.' In contrast, recreation is defined as a 'pleasant occupation, pastime or amusement; a pleasurable exercise or employment.' Despite the obvious distinction, there is a tendency in certain quasi-medical fields to weaken or confuse the meaning of the word therapy by linking it to experiences that may provide transient relief or pleasure but whose practitioners cannot ethically or credibly claim to diagnose or change the course of human disease (e.g. aromatherapy, crystal/gemstone therapy). Regrettably, this is also the case with many programs that are promoted as animal-assisted therapy. Just as we would not refer to a clown's visit to a pediatric hospital as clown-assisted therapy, the urge to call animal recreation and visitation programs therapy should be resisted" (p. 22).
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In short, the distinction comes down to between what is "therapeutic" and what is "therapy". Many things - including animal visits - are clearly therapeutic. Research on the human-animal bond supports the notion that companion animals provide a number of benefits, including: acting as an attachment figure and providing unconditional love and interaction; opportunities for recreation and exercise; reduced loneliness; social support and facilitation of social relationships; reduced anxiety and arousal; reduced symptoms of depression; and a sense of responsibility and reason for living, among others. However, these benefits in and of themselves do not consist of "therapy", however therapeutic and beneficial they may be, in that they can occur without the intervention of a trained professional.
In spite of these strong arguments, the term AAT continues to be misapplied. A potential solution that might help clarify the confusion regarding terminology would be to use "animal-assisted" as a prefix to the title of the profession or scope of practice of the credentialed practitioner in question. For example, we could speak of "animal-assisted counselling", "animal-assisted social work", "animal-assisted psychotherapy", "animal-assisted psychiatry", "animal-assisted nursing", "animal-assisted physiotherapy", etc. In fact, this is already being done by some practitioners. Another solution would be simply to continue encouraging public education surrounding the use of the terms AAT and AAA, in order to help standardize their usage.
There are many professionals, working in private practice or as part of an organization, who involve animals in their therapeutic interventions with clients. Please consult the directory for more information.
Animal-Assisted Activities (AAA) / Pet Visitation
As described by the Delta Society, animal-assisted activities (or AAAs) are "basically the casual 'meet and greet' activities that involve pets visiting people." Having numerous social, recreational, motivational, educational and therapeutic benefits, AAAs range from individuals bringing their family pet to visit an institutionalized or hospitalized friend or family member, to trained volunteers and para-professionals with a certified "therapy animal" who make visits to hospitals, long-term care facilities, hospices, residential treatment centres, group homes, community living centres, and schools.
There is considerable research in support of AAA and AAT.
In Canada, there are numerous well-established and well-reputed AAA programs seeking volunteers or looking to offer services. Click here to consult the directory.
Animal-Assisted Education (AAE)
While not one of the two standardized terms defined by the Delta Society, Animal-Assisted Education (AAE) almost deserves its own category since it has characteristics of both AAA and AAT.
Animal-Assisted Education has been narrowly defined as "a specialized application of AAA or AAT directed at students and classroom interactions" (SCAS, n.d.), but could also be considered to include any kind of skills-based learning activity that includes animals as teaching partners, whether or not it occurs in a traditional classroom setting. Examples of AAE include (but are not limited to):
**Reading assistance animals
**Dog-bite prevention programs
**Humane education programs
**Companionable zoos (similar to therapeutic farms)
Reading assistance animals: The basic premise behind literacy/reading assistance animal programs is that children with learning disabilities or who have difficulty reading, who are often self-conscious and exhibit low self-esteem, will find reading to an animal less intimidating than reading aloud to their peers. By providing a non-threatening environment and a non-judgmental presence, reading-assistance animals (commonly dogs) help such children and youth to feel less vulnerable and intimidated when practicing reading, increase self-esteem and self-confidence, help them to forget their limitations, and provide a positive, relaxed and fun atmosphere that promotes learning (see directory for list of programs).
Dog-bite prevention programs: The goal of such programs is to help teach children and youth about dog behaviour and body language in an effort to help them understand dogs better, increase their savviness and safety around dogs, and reduce their fears or phobias about dogs. By learning to "speak dog" and learning what to do when faced with an aggressive dog, children and youth are at a significantly lesser risk for being attacked or bitten. Such programs sometimes provide education to parents on how to introduce a new baby to their existing dog, as well as information and resources on how to raise puppies in ways that do not promote biting and aggression. These programs seek to foster positive, safe and loving human-dog relationships and dispel myths about dogs (see directory for list of programs and resources).
Humane education programs: Research has demonstrated a clear link between animal abuse/cruelty and human violence/abuse. Humane education programs, therefore, aim at "instilling, reinforcing, and enhancing young people's knowledge, attitudes, and behaviour toward the kind, compassionate, and responsible treatment of human and animal life" (Ascione, 1997, p. 60). Such programs focus on developing empathy and prosocial behaviours in children and youth (see directory for list of programs and resources).
Companionable zoos: Companionable zoos overlap considerably with therapeutic farms (see below). They are geared towards children and youth with behavioural, emotional, developmental and intellectual challenges. They can consist of anything from a few small animals (rodents, rabbits, a bird, etc.) housed in a classroom to much larger animals (dogs, cats, miniature horses, donkeys, goats, ducks, etc.) housed in a special building or on a farm. At companionable zoos, "children help care for the animals, learn about the animals, interact with them as pets displaying touch-talk dialogue and affection, play with them, and, when they are competent, demonstrate them to children in other classes or to adults in senior centers or hospitals. The children also have learning structured around nature study" (Katcher & Wilkins, 2000). Companionable zoos often offer humane education programs, and sometimes provide AAT or have a therapeutic component. An example of a companionable zoo is the Devereux Kanner Center in Pennsylvania.
Therapeutic Farms
The broad term of therapeutic farms encompasses a variety of locations and practices, which all have in common the provision of therapeutic programs for humans in a natural setting. Services and programs that may be offered at therapeutic farms range from:
*Residential treatment, day programs and/or camps
*Horticultural therapy
*Animal-assisted interventions (AAT, AAA, AAE, multi-species)
*Equine-assisted interventions
*Therapeutic riding
*Farming and sale of organic produce
*Traditional counselling and psychotherapy
*Vocational training
*Rehabilitation
*Outdoor activities
*Etc.
In Canada, very few therapeutic farms are currently in operation, and the services provided at each demonstrate the variety of practices and programs in use. For a complete list of these farms, including some therapeutic farms located in the United States and abroad, please visit the directory.
References
Ascione, F.R. (1997). Humane education research: Evaluating efforts to encourage children's kindness and caring toward animals. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 123, 59-77.
Delta Society (2008). Animal assisted activities & animal assisted therapy. Retrieved July 9, 2008 from http://www.deltasociety.org/AnimalsAAAAbout.htm
Kruger, K.A. & Serpell, J.A. (2006). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations. In A.H. Fine (Ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice (2nd ed.), (pp.21-38). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Society for Companion Animal Studies (n.d.). Animal-assisted activity and therapy. Retrieved June 4, 2008 from http://www.scas.org.uk/Human-companionanimalbond/Animal-assisted_activity_and_therapy.aspx?
Thompson, K.L. & Gullone, E. (2003). Promotion of empathy and prosocial behaviour in children through humane education. Australian Psychologist, 38(3), 175-182.
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